Digital communication saw by far the strongest growth in patent applications, overtaking medical technology for the first time in over a decade. This reflected the pace of development surrounding 5G technologies. The second fastest-growing field was computer technology, fuelled by the rise of artificial intelligence. In 2019, the top ten fields represented 54% of the total number of European applications filed.
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Shares repurchased in the first and second quarter of fiscal year 2017 were under the 2013 Share Repurchase Program. All other shares repurchased were under the 2016 Share Repurchase Program. The above table excludes shares repurchased to settle employee tax withholding related to the vesting of stock awards of $2.7 billion, $2.1 billion, and $1.5 billion for fiscal years 2019, 2018, and 2017, respectively. All share repurchases were made using cash resources.
As of June 30, 2019, we employed approximately 144,000 people on a full-time basis, 85,000 in the U.S. and 59,000 internationally. Of the total employed people, 47,000 were in operations, including manufacturing, distribution, product support, and consulting services; 47,000 were in product research and development; 38,000 were in sales and marketing; and 12,000 were in general and administration. Certain of our employees are subject to collective bargaining agreements.
Our international operations provide a significant portion of our total revenue and expenses. Many of these revenue and expenses are denominated in currencies other than the U.S. dollar. As a result, changes in foreign exchange rates may significantly affect revenue and expenses. Strengthening of foreign currencies relative to the U.S. dollar throughout fiscal year 2018 positively impacted reported revenue and increased reported expenses from our international operations. Strengthening of the U.S. dollar relative to certain foreign currencies did not significantly impact reported revenue or expenses from our international operations in the first and second quarters of fiscal year 2019, and reduced reported revenue and expenses from our international operations in the third and fourth quarters of fiscal year 2019.
Our effective tax rate for fiscal years 2019 and 2018 was 10% and 55%, respectively. The decrease in our effective tax rate for fiscal year 2019 compared to fiscal year 2018 was primarily due to the net charge related to the enactment of the TCJA in the second quarter of fiscal year 2018 and a $2.6 billion net income tax benefit in the fourth quarter of fiscal year 2019 related to intangible property transfers. Our effective tax rate was lower than the U.S. federal statutory rate, primarily due to the tax benefit related to intangible property transfers, and earnings taxed at lower rates in foreign jurisdictions resulting from producing and distributing our products and services through our foreign regional operations centers in Ireland, Singapore, and Puerto Rico.
The mix of income before income taxes between the U.S. and foreign countries impacted our effective tax rate as a result of the geographic distribution of, and customer demand for, our products and services. In fiscal year 2019, our U.S. income before income taxes was $15.8 billion and our foreign income before income taxes was $27.9 billion. In fiscal year 2018, our U.S. income before income taxes was $11.5 billion and our foreign income before income taxes was $24.9 billion.
During fiscal year 2018, we recorded a net charge of $13.7 billion related to the enactment of the TCJA, due to the impact of the one-time transition tax on the deemed repatriation of deferred foreign income of $17.9 billion, offset in part by the impact of changes in the tax rate of $4.2 billion, primarily on deferred tax assets and liabilities. During the second quarter of fiscal year 2019, we recorded additional tax expense of $157 million, which related to completing our provisional accounting for GILTI deferred taxes pursuant to Securities and Exchange Commission Staff Accounting Bulletin No. 118.
In the fourth quarter of fiscal year 2019, in response to the TCJA and recently issued regulations, we transferred certain intangible properties held by our foreign subsidiaries to the U.S. and Ireland. The transfers of intangible properties resulted in a $2.6 billion net income tax benefit recorded in the fourth quarter of fiscal year 2019, as the value of future tax deductions exceeded the current tax liability from foreign jurisdictions and U.S. GILTI tax.
As of June 30, 2019, the primary unresolved issues for the IRS audits relate to transfer pricing, which could have a material impact on our consolidated financial statements when the matters are resolved. We believe our allowances for income tax contingencies are adequate. We have not received a proposed assessment for the unresolved issues and do not expect a final resolution of these issues in the next 12 months. Based on the information currently available, we do not anticipate a significant increase or decrease to our tax contingencies for these issues within the next 12 months.
Cash, cash equivalents, and short-term investments totaled $133.8 billion as of both June 30, 2019 and 2018. Equity investments were $2.6 billion and $1.9 billion as of June 30, 2019 and 2018, respectively. Our short-term investments are primarily intended to facilitate liquidity and capital preservation. They consist predominantly of highly liquid investment-grade fixed-income securities, diversified among industries and individual issuers. The investments are predominantly U.S. dollar-denominated securities, but also include foreign currency-denominated securities to diversify risk. Our fixed-income investments are exposed to interest rate risk and credit risk. The credit risk and average maturity of our fixed-income portfolio are managed to achieve economic returns that correlate to certain fixed-income indices. The settlement risk related to these investments is insignificant given that the short-term investments held are primarily highly liquid investment-grade fixed-income securities.
Cash from operations increased $8.3 billion to $52.2 billion for fiscal year 2019, mainly due to an increase in cash received from customers, offset in part by an increase in cash paid to suppliers and employees and an increase in cash paid for income taxes. Cash used in financing increased $3.3 billion to $36.9 billion for fiscal year 2019, mainly due to an $8.8 billion increase in common stock repurchases and a $1.1 billion increase in dividends paid, offset in part by a $6.2 billion decrease in repayments of debt, net of proceeds from issuance of debt. Cash used in investing increased $9.7 billion to $15.8 billion for fiscal year 2019, mainly due to a $6.0 billion decrease in cash from net investment purchases, sales, and maturities, a $2.3 billion increase in additions to property and equipment, and a $1.5 billion increase in cash used for acquisitions of companies, net of cash acquired, and purchases of intangible and other assets.
We will continue to invest in sales, marketing, product support infrastructure, and existing and advanced areas of technology, as well as continue making acquisitions that align with our business strategy. Additions to property and equipment will continue, including new facilities, datacenters, and computer systems for research and development, sales and marketing, support, and administrative staff. We expect capital expenditures to increase in coming years to support growth in our cloud offerings. We have operating and finance leases for datacenters, corporate offices, research and development facilities, retail stores, and certain equipment. We have not engaged in any related party transactions or arrangements with unconsolidated entities or other persons that are reasonably likely to materially affect liquidity or the availability of capital resources.
As a result of the TCJA, we are required to pay a one-time transition tax on deferred foreign income not previously subject to U.S. income tax. Under the TCJA, the transition tax is payable interest free over eight years, with 8% due in each of the first five years, 15% in year six, 20% in year seven, and 25% in year eight. We have paid transition tax of approximately $2.0 billion, which included $1.5 billion for fiscal year 2019. The first installment of the transition tax was paid in fiscal year 2019, and the remaining transition tax of $16.4 billion is payable over the next seven years with a final payment in fiscal year 2026. During the first quarter of fiscal year 2020, we expect to pay $1.2 billion related to the second installment of the transition tax, and $3.5 billion related to the transfer of intangible properties in the fourth quarter of fiscal year 2019.
As of June 30, 2019 and 2018, long-term accounts receivable, net of allowance for doubtful accounts, was $2.2 billion and $1.8 billion, respectively, and is included in other long-term assets in our consolidated balance sheets.
Sales and marketing expenses include payroll, employee benefits, stock-based compensation expense, and other headcount-related expenses associated with sales and marketing personnel, and the costs of advertising, promotions, trade shows, seminars, and other programs. Advertising costs are expensed as incurred. Advertising expense was $1.6 billion, $1.6 billion, and $1.5 billion in fiscal years 2019, 2018, and 2017, respectively.
In August 2017, the FASB issued new guidance related to accounting for hedging activities. This guidance expands strategies that qualify for hedge accounting, changes how many hedging relationships are presented in the financial statements, and simplifies the application of hedge accounting in certain situations. The standard will be effective for us beginning July 1, 2019, with early adoption permitted for any interim or annual period before the effective date. Adoption of the standard will be applied using a modified retrospective approach through a cumulative-effect adjustment to retained earnings as of the effective date. We evaluated the impact of this standard on our consolidated financial statements, including accounting policies, processes, and systems, and do not expect the impact to be material upon adoption. 2ff7e9595c
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